Urinary incontinence

What is urinary incontinence, and can it be treated?

Urinary incontinence is the involuntary leakage of urine, which can be reduced or eliminated with treatment. The pelvic floor is a group of muscles at the bottom of the pelvis that supports the bladder and helps hold urine in. Pelvic floor rehabilitation in physical therapy focuses on strengthening these muscles, promoting relaxation, and improving coordination. These exercises are particularly effective for stress incontinence in women.¹ Incontinence is common and can sometimes be difficult to discuss. It may occur alongside pelvic organ prolapse, pelvic pain, or sexual difficulties.^{2, 3}

Physical therapy for pelvic floor rehabilitation offers a tailored program to reduce urinary leakage and its impact on your daily activities. The exercises taught are tailored to your specific type of incontinence and the function of your muscles. This guide explains the different types of incontinence, their causes, and possible treatments. Urinary leakage is not an inevitable consequence of aging, and you can discuss it with a healthcare professional.

What are the main types of urinary incontinence?

The three main types of urinary incontinence are stress incontinence, urge incontinence, and mixed incontinence. Coughing, sneezing, or jumping can trigger stress incontinence. A sudden, uncontrollable urge precedes urge incontinence. Mixed incontinence combines both. Recognizing these situations helps in choosing the right treatment.

Stress urinary incontinence occurs when pressure on the bladder exceeds the urethra’s ability to close—the urethra is the tube that carries urine out of the body. The muscles and tissues that support this tube help keep it closed.⁴ Coughing, sneezing, jumping, laughing, and lifting heavy objects can trigger leakage. The evaluation focuses on the strength and coordination of the pelvic floor, as well as its ability to relax in order to urinate.⁴ Leakage may occur after childbirth, which can alter the muscles and their supporting tissues, or around menopause, the period when menstruation permanently ceases.^{5, 6}

Urge incontinence, also known as urgency incontinence, is characterized by a sudden urge to urinate that is difficult to control. Involuntary contractions of the bladder muscle may contribute to this condition, but they do not account for all cases.⁷ The sound of running water, arriving home, or taking a shower can trigger this urge. In some women who experience lower back or pelvic pain, urgent urges coexist with muscles that are tender to pressure during an examination.² Rehabilitation may combine bladder training and pelvic floor exercises to better manage these urges. When these sudden urges become frequent and dominate the clinical picture, the condition is sometimes referred to as overactive bladder syndrome, a topic covered in detail in another of our guides.

Mixed urinary incontinence combines stress incontinence and urge incontinence. The rehabilitation program takes both of these conditions into account, as well as the symptoms that bother you the most. Other forms exist: for example, a bladder that does not empty properly may cause urine to leak due to overflow. This situation requires a medical evaluation and treatment tailored to its cause.

What are the causes of urinary incontinence?

Urinary incontinence can result from a problem with the urethral sphincter, an overactive bladder, or difficulty emptying the bladder. Pregnancy, childbirth, certain medical conditions, surgeries, and certain medications can contribute to it. The pelvic floor supports the pelvic organs and helps control urination. Weakness or a lack of coordination can disrupt this control, though this alone does not account for all instances of leakage.

Pregnancy increases stress on the pelvic floor, and vaginal delivery can stretch or injure its muscles and supporting tissues.⁵ Tears may occur in the area between the vagina and the anus. The use of forceps—instruments that help guide the baby out—is also associated with damage to certain pelvic floor muscles.⁵ After childbirth, an evaluation can identify any issues and guide the resumption of exercises.⁸

Smoking and a persistent cough are associated with stress incontinence. A chart review of 5,013 women at a Chinese hospital reported a 18.92% incidence of incontinence among smokers compared with 8.39% among nonsmokers, and a 16.46% incidence among women with a persistent cough compared with 8.21% among those without a persistent cough.⁹ These proportions are based on available data, which are incomplete for some participants. After adjusting for other factors, the associations with smoking and coughing were no longer statistically significant. The study therefore does not prove a causal relationship. For your overall health, physical activity and quitting smoking remain beneficial.

Injuries can occur during sports involving jumping or repeated impacts, such as trampoline, running, gymnastics, and CrossFit. Two systematic reviews combining multiple studies estimate the prevalence at 25.9% among female athletes participating in high-impact sports and at 44.5% among CrossFit participants.^{10, 11} These estimates vary across studies and do not reflect individual risk. Another study, involving 1,000 female athletes aged 15 to 30 who had never given birth, found a higher incidence of urinary incontinence in high-impact sports than in ball sports.¹² These findings do not point to a single cause and do not justify giving up sports. A tailored program can help you continue your activities.

A decrease in estrogen—a hormone whose production declines around menopause—can alter the tissues of the vagina and urinary tract. These changes can contribute to urinary symptoms.⁶As people age, difficulties moving around or reaching the restroom can also make it harder to manage incontinence. These challenges require appropriate care.

Organ prolapse, or pelvic prolapse, refers to the descent of one or more pelvic organs into the vagina. It may occur alongside urinary incontinence.³ It can also prevent the bladder from emptying completely. The evaluation identifies these issues to determine the appropriate treatment.

Certain diseases can interfere with bladder control. Diabetes can affect the bladder’s sensitivity, its muscles, or the nerves that control it.¹³Long-term lung diseases may be accompanied by a cough that triggers leakage during physical exertion. A study of people with both lung disease and incontinence describes their symptoms, without determining whether the lung disease caused the leakage.¹⁴ Parkinson’s disease can also disrupt the nerve signals controlling the bladder.¹⁵ A urinary tract infection can temporarily cause or worsen symptoms. This problem is particularly common among older adults.¹⁶ A burning sensation when urinating or a recent change in your urinary habits warrants a medical evaluation, as explained in the NHS fact sheet on urinary tract infections¹⁷.

Certain surgeries can affect bladder control. A prostatectomy removes the prostate, a gland located below the bladder in men. After its complete removal, difficulty closing the urethral sphincter—the muscle that helps close the urethra—often contributes to leakage.¹⁸ A hysterectomy removes the uterus, the organ where a pregnancy develops. A review of studies notes an association with incontinence, but the results vary widely and do not prove that the surgery causes every instance of leakage.¹⁹ Certain medications, including some hormone therapies, can also affect symptoms. Pelvic radiation therapy, a cancer treatment using radiation, can irritate the bladder and cause urinary symptoms. Discuss your symptoms with your healthcare team; do not stop taking any medication on your own. The National Cancer Institute describes these urinary side effects of treatments²⁰.

What are the symptoms associated with urinary incontinence?

Urinary incontinence is characterized by urine leakage, sometimes accompanied by a strong urge to urinate, dripping after using the restroom, or waking up at night to urinate. The amount, frequency, and triggering situations vary. Describing these to your healthcare provider helps clarify the problem.

Involuntary urine leakage is the main symptom. It can range from an occasional drop to the bladder emptying completely. Some people only lose a few drops during significant exertion, while others experience more substantial leaks that require protective wear.

Involuntary urine loss that occurs immediately after urinating is a distinct symptom. You might feel like you've completely emptied your bladder, then notice drops or a small leak moments after getting up from the toilet.

A strong urge to urinate can occur during the day or at night. It may be accompanied by a fear of not making it to the bathroom in time. Nocturia—the need to get up at night to urinate—can also disrupt sleep.

How is urinary incontinence diagnosed?

The diagnosis of urinary incontinence is based on your symptoms, your medical history, and an appropriate examination. Your physical therapist will assess your pelvic floor function and identify any issues that can be addressed through rehabilitation. A medical evaluation may be necessary to rule out an infection, difficulty emptying the bladder, or another underlying cause.

The consultation focuses on your bathroom habits, the frequency of leaks, what triggers them, and how they affect your daily activities. Your physical therapist will also ask you about any medical conditions, medications, pregnancies, childbirth, and physical activities. It may be helpful to keep a log for a few days noting what you drink, when you urinate, and any leaks.

The physical exam assesses the contraction and relaxation of the pelvic floor muscles: their strength, their ability to maintain contraction, and their coordination. Breathing and movements relevant to your daily activities may also be examined. An internal exam may be offered if appropriate, with your consent; you may refuse it or ask to stop it at any time.

The doctor may order a urinalysis or measure the amount of urine remaining in the bladder after you urinate. Other tests are reserved for specific situations. The NHS fact sheet on the diagnosis of incontinence describes these tests²¹.

How does physical therapy help reduce urinary incontinence?

Physical therapy can reduce urinary incontinence through pelvic floor exercises, bladder training, and personalized advice. The approach depends on the type of incontinence and the results of your evaluation. Your physical therapist will assess your habits, muscle strength, and your muscles’ ability to relax. The program focuses on practical activities—such as coughing, walking, or exercising—with the goal of minimizing incontinence.

Depending on your symptoms and with your consent, your physical therapist may suggest manual techniques targeting the abdominal or pelvic floor muscles. This manual therapy is designed to reduce discomfort and make movements or exercises easier. It can complement the program, which includes adapted active exercises.

Your physical therapist will teach you exercises to do at home. Kegel exercises involve contracting and then relaxing the pelvic floor muscles. Bladder training helps you gradually regulate your trips to the bathroom and learn how to manage a sudden urge to urinate. Breathing exercises can complement this work. The diaphragm—the main breathing muscle located beneath the lungs—and the pelvic floor work together in coordinated movements.²² Breathing exercises are a supplement chosen based on your needs; they do not, on their own, guarantee that leakage will stop.

Your physical therapist will help you adjust the amount and intensity of your activities based on your symptoms. You can learn to tighten your pelvic floor before coughing or lifting something, and then to relax it. The advice takes into account your hobbies, movements, and habits.

If necessary, your physical therapist can recommend that you try a device to support the urethra. A pessary, for example, is a device inserted into the vagina that can support this area and reduce certain types of stress incontinence. Selecting and fitting a pessary requires a trained professional. These aids can complement rehabilitation, either during certain activities or over a longer period of time, depending on your needs.

When should you see a physiotherapist for urinary incontinence?

A physical therapy consultation for urinary incontinence is recommended as soon as leakage becomes a concern or interferes with your daily activities. You can also schedule a consultation during pregnancy or after childbirth to learn exercises and discuss prevention. A medical evaluation is still important if your symptoms are new, unusual, or accompanied by the warning signs described below.

You can seek preventive care even if you don’t have urinary incontinence, particularly during pregnancy and after childbirth. Exercises during pregnancy can reduce the risk of urinary incontinence in women who did not have it initially.²³ For the first year after childbirth, the 2025 Canadian guidelines recommend daily pelvic floor exercises and tips on how to do them correctly.⁸ The program takes into account recovery, pain, and symptoms. During menopause or when participating in high-impact sports, a consultation can also help you adapt your habits and exercises.

You can see a physical therapist without a doctor's prescription. Your physical therapist will refer you to a doctor or another healthcare professional if necessary. A physical therapy appointment is not a substitute for emergency care if warning signs are present.

What symptoms require prompt or urgent medical attention?

A sudden change in bladder control warrants medical attention. If you are unable to urinate or have severe abdominal pain, seek medical care immediately: urinary retention—that is, a bladder that does not empty—must be evaluated promptly. The NIDDK describes these signs of retention²⁴.

Blood in the urine requires prompt medical attention, even if it’s just a small amount or a one-time occurrence. The NHS fact sheet on blood in the urine explains why you should have it checked²⁵. If you have symptoms of a urinary tract infection—such as a fever, chills, or pain in the lower abdomen or in the back below the ribs—you should also seek medical attention promptly. The NHS guidance on urinary tract infections lists other situations that should be evaluated¹⁷. New-onset confusion, unusual drowsiness, or difficulty speaking warrants immediate emergency care.

New-onset loss of bladder control accompanied by back or leg pain may indicate an urgent nerve problem. Go to the emergency room immediately. Numbness around the genitals or anus, a new difficulty starting to urinate, a new loss of bowel control, or severe or worsening weakness or numbness in both legs are also warning signs. Don’t wait until all of them are present. The NHS describes these signs related to the nerves in the lower back²⁶.

What can you do at home for urinary incontinence?

At home, keeping a leakage log, staying properly hydrated, and doing the exercises you’ve been taught can help you manage urinary incontinence. Write down the beverages you drink, the urge to urinate, and the activities associated with leakage. These notes will help you adjust your habits in consultation with your healthcare provider.

You can try cutting back on coffee, caffeinated tea, or caffeinated soft drinks if you have a strong urge to urinate. Alcohol can also increase urine output. See if changing your intake reduces your symptoms, rather than automatically eliminating all of the beverages listed. The NIDDK recommends these individualized adjustments²⁷.

Some people notice more symptoms after eating hot peppers, citrus fruits, or foods containing sweeteners—substances that give a sweet taste. You can try temporarily cutting back on a suspected food and noting the result. The evidence does not support a blanket ban on these foods. The NIDDK’s advice on diet and the bladder recommends monitoring your reaction²⁸.

Drink enough to prevent dehydration, without forcing yourself to drink excessively. Pale yellow urine is a common indicator. Insufficient fluid intake can make your urine more concentrated and increase the urgency to urinate. If a healthcare professional has prescribed a specific amount of fluid for a medical condition, follow those instructions and discuss any leakage with them.

What are the benefits of pelvic floor rehabilitation?

Pelvic floor rehabilitation can reduce leakage, improve quality of life, and sometimes eliminate symptoms, especially in women with stress incontinence.¹ Exercises are among the first treatments recommended, even when urinary urgency is also present. This approach does not require surgery. Continuing the exercises can help maintain the benefits, but long-term results have not been as thoroughly studied. If leakage persists or recurs, the program may be reevaluated and other treatments considered.

Pelvic floor strengthening has been extensively studied for stress urinary incontinence in women. A review of 31 trials shows improvements compared with no treatment or sham interventions.¹ For urinary urgency, bladder training may reduce leakage, but the studies yield less conclusive results.²⁹ Treatment for mixed incontinence combines strategies based on symptoms. Leakage following prostate surgery or related to poor bladder emptying requires a tailored treatment plan.

Rehabilitation can also address other aspects of your pelvic health. In women with sexual difficulties, a review of trials found improvements in several aspects of sexual function, although the evidence supporting these findings is limited.³⁰ In women with symptomatic organ prolapse, an individualized program reduced symptoms at 12 months more effectively than an advice brochure without exercises; however, this does not guarantee that the organs will return to their original position.³¹ Pelvic floor exercises added to physical therapy may also reduce lower back pain, particularly in studies related to pregnancy. The certainty of these findings remains low.³²

A separate study examined 108 women with lower back or pelvic pain. Strong or uncontrollable urges to urinate were associated with tenderness in the deep pelvic muscles when pressure was applied. The odds ratio was 2.93. An odds ratio compares the probability of a symptom occurring to the probability of it not occurring. In this case, the study compares these odds among women with and without strong urges to urinate. This figure therefore does not mean that the probability is multiplied by 2.93.² This observation shows that the symptoms coexist, without establishing that one causes the other.

Why should you seek early treatment for urinary incontinence?

If you’re bothered by vaginal discharge, seeing a doctor as soon as possible can help determine the type of discharge and allow you to begin appropriate treatment. It can also help identify a cause that requires medical treatment. You don’t have to wait for the condition to worsen before seeking help.

Leakage can limit your ability to go out, exercise, or be intimate. Your healthcare provider can help you find solutions so you can resume the activities you want to do. Talking about it can also help address the embarrassment or anxiety that sometimes accompany these symptoms.

Why Treat Urinary Incontinence with a Holistic Approach?

A comprehensive approach to incontinence allows care to be tailored to your specific challenges, taking into account your pelvic floor, bladder, daily habits, and any associated medical conditions. Your physical therapist will identify the movements that are most helpful for your daily life and refer you to other professionals as needed.

The pelvic floor plays a role in breathing and in supporting the pelvis, working in conjunction with the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles.²² Its activity also changes during certain trunk movements.³³ These roles can be incorporated into exercises without imposing a single posture on everyone. Rehabilitation combines strength, relaxation, and management of urinary urgency as needed.

Core stabilizer exercises target the muscles that help control movements of the abdomen and back. These exercises can be incorporated into your program as needed. The breathing techniques and positions used are designed to make the exercises and your daily activities easier.

How can you get help with urinary incontinence?

A consultation with a physical therapist who specializes in pelvic floor rehabilitation will help assess your challenges and develop a tailored treatment plan. If you’re also experiencing pain, our guide on pelvic floor pain can provide additional information. At Physioactif, your care plan takes into account your incontinence, your activities, and your goals.

Please feel free to schedule an appointment for a comprehensive evaluation. During this initial session, your physical therapist will take the time to understand your situation, assess your pelvic floor, and develop a treatment plan tailored to your needs and goals. Confidentiality and respect are at the heart of our approach.

Where can I learn more about pelvic floor rehabilitation?

The “Parle-moi de santé” podcast features pelvic floor rehabilitation in Episode 23, hosted by Alexis Gougeon with Jennifer Lévesque. Jennifer Lévesque is a physical therapist who specializes in this field. This episode addresses pelvic floor disorders, incontinence, pain during sexual intercourse, pregnancy, and physical activity. For a broader overview of the care available to women, our page on women’s health physical therapy also covers pregnancy and menopause.

What studies does this page draw on?

This page draws primarily on a Cochrane review of pelvic floor exercises and the 2025 Canadian guidelines for the first year after childbirth. The numbered links in the text lead to the corresponding publications. The two publications listed below are cited in particular for their discussion of the links between symptoms and for their postpartum recommendations.

1. Dumoulin C, Cacciari LP, Hay-Smith EJC. Pelvic floor muscle training versus no treatment, or inactive control treatments, for urinary incontinence in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;10(10):CD005654. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd, 3rd citations
2. Keizer A, Vandyken B, Vandyken C, Yardley D, Macedo L, Kuspinar A, et al. Predictors of Pelvic Floor Muscle Dysfunction Among Women With Lumbopelvic Pain. Phys Ther. 2019;99(12):1703-1711. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd, 3rd citations
3. Wieslander CK. Clinical approach and office evaluation of patients with pelvic floor dysfunction. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2009;36(3):445-62. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd references
4. Chermansky CJ, Moalli PA. The role of the pelvic floor in lower urinary tract function. Auton Neurosci. 2016;200:43-48. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd citations
5. DeLancey JOL, Masteling M, Pipitone F, LaCross J, Mastrovito S, Ashton-Miller JA. Pelvic floor injury during vaginal birth is life-altering and preventable: what can we do about it? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2024;230(3):279-294.e2. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd, 3rd citations
6. Misasi G, Ozcivit Erkan IB, Russo E, Pisacreta E, Fidecicchi T, Montt Guevara MM, et al. Pelvic floor dysfunction in menopause: screening, evaluation, and management. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2026;21(1):53-68. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd citations
7. Peyronnet B, Mironska E, Chapple C, Cardozo L, Oelke M, Dmochowski R, et al. A Comprehensive Review of the Pathophysiology of Overactive Bladder: Toward Tailored Treatment. Eur Urol. 2019;75(6):988-1000. ↩ Back to text
8. Davenport MH, Ruchat SM, Jaramillo Garcia A, Ali MU, Forte M, Beamish N, et al. 2025 Canadian Guidelines for Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, and Sleep Throughout the First Year Postpartum. Br J Sports Med. 2025. ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd citations
9. Wei D, Meng J, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Li J, Niu X. Identification of potential factors associated with stress urinary incontinence in women: a retrospective study. Ann Transl Med. 2022;10(18):965. ↩ Back to text
10. Pires T, Pires P, Moreira H, Viana R. Prevalence of Urinary Incontinence in High-Impact Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Hum Kinet. 2020;73:279-288. ↩ Back to text
11. Dominguez-Antuña E, Diz JC, Suárez-Iglesias D, Ayán C. Prevalence of urinary incontinence in female CrossFit athletes: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Int Urogynecol J. 2023;34(3):621-634. ↩ Back to text
12. Whitney KE, Holtzman B, Cook D, Bauer S, Maffazioli GDN, Parziale AL, et al. Low energy availability and participation in high-impact sports as risk factors for urinary incontinence in female athletes. J Pediatr Urol. 2021;17(3):290.e1-290.e7. ↩ Back to text
13. Daneshgari F, Liu G, Birder L, Hanna-Mitchell AT, Chacko S. Diabetic bladder dysfunction: current translational knowledge. J Urol. 2009;182(6 Suppl):S18-26. ↩ Back to text
14. Alrajhi NS, Albarrati A, Aldhahi MI, Gwada RFM. Influence of Factors Related to Urinary Incontinence on Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2025;20:1881-1892. ↩ Back to text
15. Kitta T, Ouchi M, Chiba H, Higuchi M, Togo M, Abe-Takahashi Y, et al. Animal Model for Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(18). ↩ Back to text
16. Dowling-Castronovo A, Specht JK. How to try this: Assessment of transient urinary incontinence in older adults. Am J Nurs. 2009;109(2):62-71; quiz 72. ↩ Back to text
17. National Health Service (NHS), United Kingdom. Urinary tract infections (UTIs). ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd references
18. Shen C, Zhu X, Chen Z, Zhang W, Chen X, Zheng B, et al. Nomogram for predicting early urinary incontinence after radical prostatectomy. BMC Cancer. 2024;24(1):1095. ↩ Back to text
19. Wang L, Gao L, Bai X, Gu J. Hysterectomy and the risk of urinary incontinence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Urology. 2026;6:1816956. ↩ Back to text
20. National Cancer Institute (NCI), United States. Urinary and Bladder Problems and Cancer Treatment. Side Effects. ↩ Back to text
21. National Health Service (NHS), United Kingdom. Urinary Incontinence - Diagnosis. ↩ Back to text
22. Tim S, Mazur-Bialy AI. The Most Common Functional Disorders and Factors Affecting the Female Pelvic Floor. Life (Basel). 2021;11(12). ↩ Back to text: 1st, 2nd references
23. Woodley SJ, Lawrenson P, Boyle R, Cody JD, Mørkved S, Kernohan A, et al. Pelvic floor muscle training for preventing and treating urinary and fecal incontinence in antenatal and postnatal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;5(5):CD007471. ↩ Back to text
24. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), United States. Symptoms & Causes of Urinary Retention. ↩ Back to text
25. National Health Service (NHS), United Kingdom. Blood in the urine. ↩ Back to text
26. National Health Service (NHS), United Kingdom. Sciatica. ↩ Back to text
27. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), United States. Treatments for Bladder Control Problems (Urinary Incontinence). ↩ Back to text
28. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), United States. Prevention of Bladder Control Problems (Urinary Incontinence) & Bladder Health. ↩ Back to text
29. Funada S, Yoshioka T, Luo Y, Sato A, Akamatsu S, Watanabe N. Bladder training for treating overactive bladder in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023;10(10):CD013571. ↩ Back to text
30. Jorge CH, Bø K, Chiazuto Catai C, Oliveira Brito LG, Driusso P, Kolberg Tennfjord M. Pelvic floor muscle training as a treatment for female sexual dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2024;231(1):51-66.e1. ↩ Back to text
31. Hagen S, Stark D, Glazener C, Dickson S, Barry S, Elders A, et al. Individualized pelvic floor muscle training in women with pelvic organ prolapse (POPPY): a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2014;383(9919):796-806. ↩ Back to text
32. Lim Y, Do Y, Lee SH, Lee H. Efficacy of pelvic floor muscle training with physical therapy for low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Rehabil. 2024;38(12):1590-1608. ↩ Back to text
33. Hodges PW, Sapsford R, Pengel LH. Postural and respiratory functions of the pelvic floor muscles. Neurourol Urodyn. 2007;26(3):362-71. ↩ Back to text

Our physical therapists defined the research strategy, plan, and clinical content of this article. An AI tool assisted with the literature review and text editing to ensure consistency in content and writing style.